Tombs

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1020
General Structure: The tumulus is a roughly circular shape with a diameter of approximately 20 m and is on the Via della Necropoli. Around the side of the tumulus there are signs of cuttings probably for quarrying purposes. On the right back side of the tumulus there are stairs carved into the tuff. There is only one chamber tomb in the tumulus with one side chamber on the left of the dromos and one central chamber aligned with the dromos. Front Side Chamber: The ceiling and front wall of the side chamber has collapsed but the original height was probably approximately 1.5 m. The original width of the chamber is uncertain since the whole front wall has collapsed, but may have been approximately 2.2 m. There is certainly one rock-cut sepulchral bed (0.67 m high, 2.22 m long with end boards, and 0.74 m wide) on the right side of the chamber which has pedimental head and foot boards and a recessed centre. It is challenging to tell if there is a second bed on the left side because of the damage to the front part of the chamber. There is a small step (0.84 × 0.44 × 0.16 m) along the rear wall of the chamber between the bed and the front wall. It seems that there may only have been a small bench on the left side, if anything because the back wall of the chamber does not look to have continued out much further, meaning the chamber was probably quite narrow with room only for one bed. The current height of what is left of the front wall area (the left side of the chamber) is only 0.57 m, so shorter than the bed. However, it is possible that the rear wall extended further, the chamber was wider, and there was a second bed or bench. In fact, it might have been something similar to what is found on the left side of the central chamber (see below). The door to the side chamber is only 0.80 m from the entrance to the central chamber. Central Chamber: The tomb is accessed via a dromos of around 3.85 m in length and 1.59 m in width. The entrance to the rear chamber is an ogival door (1.25 × 0.75 m) that has two steps down (for a total depth of 0.95 m). There is a slight horizontal overhang (at 1.39 m above ground level) of rock that runs over the door and on the right side of the dromos that may have been a decorative addition. The rear chamber is around 5.14 × 2.55 m along most of its length, but there is a shallow, rectangular niche on the left side of the wall and an ogival niche in the rear wall of the chamber. The shallow niche (2.50 m in length and 0.37 m in depth) on the left side of the wall seems to have been added to accommodate for the width (a total of 0.90 m and a height of around 0.44 m) of a rock-cut bed. The bed has a recessed top and there are recessions carved to denote legs. The rock at the level of the bed continues around the side wall of the tomb to the back wall to create a bench and ends where there is a rock-cut sepulchral bed on the right side. There is also a step below this bench at the back wall section between the two beds. There is also a much small rectangular niche (0.34 × 0.30 m, and 0.48 up the wall from ground level) on the left wall close to the entrance before the bed begins. The rear ogival niche (approximately 1.60 m in height, 0.85 m in width, and 0.80 m in depth) is slightly off-centre to the right and is behind the step and bench and the corner of the sepulchral bed. The niche matches the ogival shape of the doorway. The sepulchral bed (around 2. 50 × 1 m) is also sarcophagus-like with a carved ridge around the edge to create the slight recession. The head and foot boards are quite damaged, but it seems that one or both might have been pedimental, like those on the bed in the front side chamber. There is a piece of stone of the pedimental shape that is not in situ and was placed by the entrance to the chamber. The stone piece is about 0.94 m in length at its base and the head/footboards are about 0.97 m so it seems it comes from one of them. There is a small bench/step at the foot of the bed that has the same height (about 0.26 m) as the step at the rear of the chamber. The roof of the ceiling of the rear chamber resembles a pitched roof and forms a triangular projection. There are vertical grooves made on the side walls (three on the left and five on the right), which may have been some sort of decorative addition Façade: There are a few external features of this tomb that are worth noting. At the front of the tumulus at the entrance to the dromos there is a cut rock outcrop that has a small, elongated concave cutting (around 0.57 m in length, 0.30 m in width, and 0.32 m in depth) that looks like a channel. On the back, right side of the tumulus, there are rock-cut stairs that lead from a lower ground level to the top of the tumulus. The stairs are unlike the stairs and ramps of other tumuli that are at a perpendicular angle to the tumulus, jutting outward. These stairs are parallel and connected to the tumulus wall. The bottom stairs, as well as the lower area they are in, is covered by soil and rocks, but their height is approximately 2.37 m. There is a small cut niche on the side of the stairs and pickaxe marks are visible. The stairs have a width of approximately 0.84 m. Interpretation: I interpret the left rock-cut surface in the central chamber as a bed, but it is possible it was a bench because it continues without any marked separation into the rest of the bench that goes around the rear wall. It does have the edge in the relief and the carvings to represent legs, but this could also be to portray a table-like feature rather than a bed. If it was a bench, it could have been used as a place to put offerings and/or grave goods, as was likely done with the bench on the rear wall and possibly the small niche on the left wall. Nonetheless, if it was a sepulchral bed, then there were at least three buried individuals in this tomb.I date this tomb to the sixth century BCE because there is no ridge beam or other denotations shown on the ceiling of the central chamber and it seems to be very hut-like. There is only a slight ridge where the ceiling meets the wall. The ogival door and rear niche also recall other early tombs, like the Tomb of the Hut (seventh century BCE, also in Banditaccia). The shallow depth of the tomb also might suggest an earlier date. Furthermore, the excavation into this rock outcrop that seems to have been uneven in shape may suggest an earlier date because the excavators were not yet fully familiar with the best way to cut tumuli. The rock in the central chamber also seems to be of rough, bad quality since there are many small tuff bombs in it. References: Steingräber, S. 2013. ‘Worshiping with the dead.’ In The Etruscan World, edited by J. M. Turfa, 655–671. New York: Routledge.
1017
General Structure: The tumulus is a roughly circular mound with a diameter of approximately 15 m and is on the Via della Necropoli. There is only one chamber tomb in the tumulus, and it has a central, rear chamber cut into the rock further into the tumulus, and two antechambers on the left and right side of a small dromos (approximately 2.75 m long). The two antechambers are no longer covered by rock or earth due to collapsing of the structure in this frontal zone. The central chamber is still covered and has a rock-cut ceiling with a carved beam running the length of the centre of the ceiling. There seem to be rock-cut steps on the left side of the tumulus that could have allowed access to the top of the tumulus or at least the higher area on the side of the tumulus. To the right of the tumulus, there is another tomb with a more rectangular rock-cut façade. This smaller tomb is not directly connected to the larger, main tumulus, but it is cut into the same bedrock outcrop, so it gives the impression of an annex, although it is probably a completely separate tomb. Left Side Chamber: The left antechamber (approximately 3.22 × 2.30 m) has at least one rock-cut funerary bed (approximately 2.30 × 0.85 m) on the right side of the chamber. The rim of the bed is raised slightly higher to show a frame. The left side of the antechamber is not well preserved and is covered by soil and vegetation, so it is unclear if there was another sepulchral bed. There looks to be a bench at the rear of the chamber that is the same height of the bed. Almost the entirety of the front wall is missing except for a small piece near the dromos. The original height of the chamber is uncertain due to soil build up and the lack of a ceiling but the height from the top of the bed to the probable original ceiling is 1.11 m. The doorway seems to have been around 0.92 m and there is a tuff block in front that may have been used to seal the doorway. Right Side Chamber: The right antechamber (approximately 2.33 × 2.07 m) has a carved, ogival niche in the wall that adjoins with the inner tumulus. This chamber is also not well-preserved and is covered by soil and vegetation. It is probable that it was similar to the left side chamber. Central Chamber: The central chamber is entered through an ogival, rock-cut door (approximately 1.12 × 0.73 m) at the end of the dromos (which was probably 5 m in length). The depth from the current dromos level to the chamber floor is 0.65 m. The chamber is oblong (approximately 4.70 × 2.78 m) and has two rock-cut sepulchral beds on the left and right side of the chamber with a connecting rock-cut bench behind them at the back of the chamber. The bed on the right side has a different form from that on the left: the rock is cut as to create walls and a pediment-like headboard, similar to a sarcophagus. The right bed is approximately 2.40 × 0.70 m and the walls of the bed create a recessed area with a depth of 0.40 m. There is no footboard on this bed and it is unclear if there ever was. The left sepulchral bed (approximately 2.65 × 0.95 m) is flat but has carved details like the raised bedframe around the bed surface, a semi-circular carving at the area of the head, and the circular top of the legs of the bed. The central beam goes from the entrance to the rear of the chamber and is 0.24 m wide. Façade: The other important aspect of the tumulus is the stairs on its left side. Although it is common for the sides and front of tombs to have lateral and vertical straight cuttings from quarrying activities, these seem to be cut purposefully to allow for a person to ascend the tumulus. The three visible steps measure, in ascending order, heights of approximately 0.60 m, 0.65 m, and 0.55 m. The two lower steps have a depth of approximately 0.64 m. Tomb Annex on the Right: There seems to be one, central chamber (approximately 2.00 × 1.70 m) cut into the rock, accessed through an ogival door. The door faces the same direction as the door of the tumulus tomb and measures approximately 1.00 × 0.59 m. It is unclear if there are sepulchral beds in the chamber, but it is possible one or two people were buried here. The rock façade and sides of this tomb seem to have been quarried. Interpretation: The smaller chamber tomb to the right of the tumulus uses the same bedrock outcrop as the tumulus and it may have been a related project. The ogival doorway and the beam on the ceiling of the central chamber could suggest a date of the sixth century BCE. This is similar to T20 and, as mentioned in that catalogue entry, like the Tomb of the Hut (seventh century BCE), although probably slightly later. The shallow depth of the tomb also might suggest an earlier date. There are at least three beds in this tomb so there were at least three buried individuals, and probably more if there are more beds that are not currently visible. References: Steingräber, S. 2013. ‘Worshiping with the dead.’ In The Etruscan World, edited by J. M. Turfa, 655–671. New York: Routledge.
94
General Structure: This tomb is not exactly like any other type but may be best described as a Chamber House Tomb Type with a Dromos (which may have had descending stairs that are now covered by soil). The front of the tomb is defined by areas of cut bedrock to the left and right of the main entranceway and dromos. There is one side chamber on the left side when facing the façade, but it is mostly filled with soil. The main central chamber is also partially filled with soil and rocks, which hide the interior features, such as sepulchral beds. Front Side Chamber: The doorway seems to be a rectangular shape (around 0.69 m in width) and is 0.5 m from the façade of the central chamber door. It is mostly filled with soil, so there is only an open space with a height of around 0.60 m. As stated, the chamber is also mostly filled with soil and rocks and there is a void of only around 0.50 m in height. There is a hole in the wall of the side chamber (allowing you to see in the chamber when standing in front of the tomb façade) and probably was a later occurrence due to quarrying, which may be the reason for the pickaxe marks on the rock above the hold. This can be understood from the continuation of the inner, right chamber wall that proceeds outward even though the ceiling is no longer there. Thus, the original structure would have been complete and formed an enclosed side chamber (around 2.28 × 1.80 m). There is also a hole on the wall of the side chamber that connects to the central chamber, but it is unclear if this was intentional, due to later disturbance, or solely from erosion. A carved beam runs across the center of the flat ceiling from the door of the side chamber to the back wall. Central Chamber: There is a recessed, incised rectangular doorway from the dromos into the chamber (the lining of the doorway formed by the recession is around 0.30 m wide on the sides and around 0.45 m wide on the lintel). The doorway is around 0.79 m in width, with some damage on the left side, and over 1 m in height. The central chamber is around 3.9 m in length and a width around 4 m. Although the debris inside the chamber obscures most interior features, the cutting of a rectangular door in the back wall of the chamber is slightly visible. The way that the soil is laying in a very flat manner on the right side of the central chamber suggests the presence of a sepulchral bed below. Soil fill is visible inside the door continuing into the back central chamber. To the right of the door at the back of the chamber there is a small window also opening to the back chamber. It is probable there is another one of these windows on the left side of the door to the back chamber, but it is obscured by the rubble. Both the door and window are framed by the common decoration of a lintel with a curving, slightly hooked overhang that is hard to see on either side in the Type 2 or Type 3 style and the frame is painted red. There is a lunate niche cut into the left and right walls near the entrance door of the chamber and there is a carved central beam in the flat ceiling that goes from side to side of the chamber rather than from front to back. The right-side wall that connects to the façade of the tomb has a shallow, long hole in it which may have been created by looters searching for a connection to another front chamber (that does not exist) or may have been a false-start by the original tomb creators. Back Central Chamber: From the little of the chamber that can be seen through the door above the debris, it looks as though there is a carved central beam going in the direction from the doorway to the back of the chamber (so this is perpendicular to the direction of the beam in the central chamber). Façade: Quarrying or reworking of the rock along the façade is evident. As stated, there are pickaxe marks on the front wall above the opening of the side chamber, probably alluding to the quarrying that caused the hole in the front of the side chamber. Above the left side chamber and along the dromos wall, there look to be steps ascending toward the top of the tomb. It is possible that these were from quarrying of the area, however, and they are shallow cuts (0.48 m in width) that do not run the length of the left side of the tomb. One step has dimensions of around 0.24 m in height and around 0.45 m in depth. There are also the remains of a possible step lower down at the front of the entranceway that now looks to be a square cutting into the rock. There is no frontal side chamber on the right, but instead there are two layers of stepped cuttings of the bedrock. Pickaxe marks are visible on the uppermost part of the façade wall above both stepped cuttings and also on part of the vertical side of the upper cutting. There seem to be trenching marks in this area, further suggesting that this part of the façade was also used for quarrying. From the current ground surface in the dromos to the top of the lower cutting, it is around 0.48 and the surface is around 0.55 m. The vertical side of the upper cutting is around 0.35 m, its surface is around 1.3 m, and the length is around 2.24 m. The bottom layer of rock that was quarried on the right side of the tomb façade is around 2.7 m long from the area of the central chamber entrance to its end, meaning this may have been the original dromos length. If the possible stairs on the left side of the dromos originally continued downward (before the quarrying activity) with a general height and length of 0.36 m, they could have touched the current ground level at the end of a dromos that was around 2.5 m in length. Interpretation: The length of the dromos was probably comparable to the lengths of dromoi of other D-type tombs. For example, D1 has a total dromos length of around 5.42 m, with 2.45 m from the central chamber door to the beginning of the stairs and around 1.6 m from the central chamber entrance to the entrances of the front side chambers. D2 also has a dromos length of around 5 m with the stairs beginning around 1.95 m from the central chamber entrance (1.21 m for the front, side niches). Thus, it is possible that the original length of the dromos of this tomb (D10, A94) was similar in length and that the current 2.7 m is shorter due to the quarrying activity and soil cover. The soil that fills most of the door of the front side chamber also supports the idea that there are probably descending stairs at the beginning of the dromos that are covered by soil. Therefore, this tomb has been classified as a D-type tomb. Using similar tombs (such as A8) as comparanda, it is probable that there were two sepulchral beds in the central chamber, two in the front side chamber, and probably two more in the back central chamber, meaning at least 6 people were likely buried in this tomb. The niches on the side walls of the central chamber may have been used to hold offerings. The flat roof suggests a date of the end of the fifth century BCE to the fourth century BCE. The styles of the frames around the door and windows look to be Type 2 or Type 3 Doric Door in Prayon’s classification of door frames, similar to the Type 3 False Doors discussed by Tobin at San Giovenale, which further supports this date since this door type dates to around 400 BCE (Prayon 1975, 39; Tobin 2015, 23–24). The area on top of the tomb above the door lintel looks to be flat and could have been a platform space, which may have been reached by the possible stairs on the left side of the dromos. References: Prayon, F. 1975. Frühetruskische Grab- und Hausarchitektur. Heidelberg: F. H. Kerle. Tobin, F. 2015. The Chamber Tombs of San Giovenale and the Funerary Landscapes of South Etruria. Uppsala University.
192
General Tomb Structure: The tomb is cut directly into the bedrock. The dimensions of the rock-cut tomb are 2.35m x 1.64m. While in the general shape of a rectangle, the cuts have rounded edges and the side cuts flare out the deeper the cut into the bedrock. Therefore, the sides of the rock-cut are not straight at 90 degrees. The depth of this cut is unexcavated, but the current depth at its deepest measures at least 0.52m. The tomb is cut on an inclined surface that rises slightly. It is also cut in what looks like a mound with the earth rising above the cut so that there is a downhill slope leading to the rockcut. The sides of the cut are not uniform as one side has some minor dirt and rock collapse. Along one corner of the cut, the rock cut juts out to the left and then back down creating an imperfect corner angle with an inverse rock shape of 90 degrees. Interpretation: Given the length and width of the tomb, it is plausible to assume that at least one adult was buried in this tomb. With the tilted walls of this shaft grave that do not meet the bottom at a 90 degree angle, but rather at an acute angle, this is a Masuda type tomb. Based on the excavations in “Zona Laghetto” at Cerveteri, the Masuda typology can be dated to the 8th-7th centuries. Thus, because this cut possesses Masuda distinctions, the acute angle of the wall cuts, it can be dated to the 8th-7th centuries BCE.
15
General Tomb Structure: The tomb is a rectangular cut into the bedrock. The width of the cut is 0.63cm. It remains unexcavated, covered in leaves, soil, and natural matter, so the depth of the tomb is indiscernible. Moreover, its unexcavated state prevents it from currently looking like a perfect rectangle. The length is likewise unclear, but is at least 1.32m long. The bedrock that the tomb is cut into is located on an incline very close to the Via dei Necropoli. On the right side of the cut, there is, what appears to be in the scan, a flat cut. From in person analysis during the 2025 season, the small tomb is located on an incline of bedrock into which other tombs, including chamber tombs are cut into. This incline is seen on the north-west length side of the rock-cut above the straight cut wall of the shaft. The west width side of the straight cut has some indentations, possibly trenching marks. Interpretation: The non-exact length of the tomb makes it difficult to discern how many people were buried here, but there was likely at least one. With the current measurement of 1.32m long, in the tomb’s unexcavated state, this tomb was likely for a child or young adolescent. The straight cuts on the side of the tomb further hones the dating period as it appears to be a Republican or Roman-type shaft grave. The tomb’s location close to the main road on a lower elevation than other tombs in its vicinity also indicates a later dating period. All of this information suggests a dating period between the 4th-3rd century BCE.
16
General Tomb Structure: This tomb is a rectangular cut into the bedrock and currently remains unexcavated, meaning the depth of the tomb is currently unknown . The width of the tomb is 0.80m. The length is indiscernible as it seems to continue past the LiDAR scan capture, but is at least 2.57m long. On either side of the rock-cut is a flat bed of rock. On the flatbed on the right side of the rock cut, there seems to be remnants of a short wall or raised stone border around the corner of the rockbed. The whole cut and flat rock beds on either side of the cut are on a slight incline. Interpretation: While potentially unclear on the scan, in person analysis of the tomb proved that this cut is indeed a shaft grave, though its depth is unclear due to its unexcavated status. The cut is on an incline and there is a very fragmentary raised border on the upper right side of the flat cut above the rock-cut of the tomb, only 0.19 meters from the cut. The length of the main rock cut is 2.57 meters long, suggesting that at least one, if not two, or more, people were buried here. The sides of the cut appear to be straight cuts down, eliminating its possibility as a Masuda-type tomb, and suggest that it is rather a Republican or Roman-type shaft grave. Though the sides are cut straight down, the cuts along the length of the rock cut are not smooth, potentially indicating trenching, though its unexcavated state makes it difficult to tell. Its location, however, very close and adjacent to the Via dei Necropoli in addition to its status as a shaft grave suggest a later dating period for this tomb, perhaps between the 4th-3rd centuries BCE.
1013
Description: S1 (T13) is a square tumulus cut into the bedrock with four chambers located near the Via dei Necropoli. On the outside of the tumulus, there are three tori encircling the four sides; additionally, there are quarry marks and tufo bombs on the outside wall to the right of the entrance. The chambers do not take up much space within the tumulus; there is much left unexcavated. Chambers A and B: The front two chambers, flanking a short dromos, are open-air, with the two facade walls and ceilings having collapsed. The original height of the chambers were approximately 1.70 meters. Chamber A, the right chamber (2.64 m long and 2.09 m wide) has a rectangular plan. Within it, there is a stone bed with a cut headrest/pillow (approximately 0.70 m wide), a continuing bench along the rear wall (approximately 0.45 m wide), a collapsed wall on the exterior side, and a cut block on the floor that is not in situ. The left chamber (Chamber B), measuring 2.18 m long and 1.70 m wide, has two stone beds with carved headrests and legs parallel to each other (the distance between the beds is 0.87 m) that are connected by a stone bench (0.40 m wide) on the rear wall. Chamber C: A rectangular cut door with a rock-cut threshold leads from the entrance to the central chamber. There are two stone steps descending from the entrance to the central chamber (the total height of the two steps is 0.66 m). In the central chamber, which measures approximately 3.92 m long and 3.20 m wide, there are two cut stone beds (also approximately 0.70 m wide) either side of the chamber with stones (combination of spoliated stone and rock) on each end. Each bed rests at a higher elevation than the floor level (approximately 0.25 m), has incised legs/bedframe, and possibly rock pillows. There is a circular hole (0.51 m wide, 0.41 m high, and 0.55 m deep) above the left bed; it is possibly due to collapse but does appear quite circular. Along the ceiling is a central beam carved in relief, imitating a wooden beam, (0.43 m wide) extending throughout the width of the room. Additionally, the ceiling slants downward towards the rear of the chamber, possibly to imitate the appearance of a roof. A cut rectangular doorway leads to the back chamber, with carved rectangular windows on each side of the door, which are also present in square tumulus S2 (T11). Above these windows are two rectangular shelves carved into the wall. Chamber D: Within the back chamber, which measures approximately 2.25 m in length and 1.86 m in width, stone benches occupy three sides with a hole (likely due to collapse) on the left wall. The ceiling beam carved in relief (0.40 m wide) is present throughout the length of the rear chamber. Interpretation: The carved ceiling beam, which imitates the appearance of a two-story house, is indicative of a date of the late 6th to 5th century BCE, and it is comparable to the incised ceiling beam of the central chamber in T9. The carved shelving above the door in the central chamber is symptomatic of tombs dating later than the 5th century BCE. Additionally, its location close to the Via dei Necropoli suggests a later dating, likely between the 5th and 2nd centuries BCE. Chamber C held at least two inhumation burials, and the front chambers likely held at least three further burials (further understanding of the possible number of individuals buried in these chambers is hindered by the collapse of the walls). The rear chamber (D) possibly held the remains of further individuals, though the benches may have also been used to store grave goods. The location of the two front chambers so close to the outside of the tumulus may suggest that they were later additions, indicating possible reuse. Furthermore, the limited amount of space used within the tumulus for the carving of these chambers may suggest that further additions were intended but never fulfilled.
187
General Structure: Tomb A187 is a square, rock cut chamber that measures 2.7 meters long by 2.6 meters wide, with a maximum floor-to-ceiling height of 1.69 meters. The chamber has a single, slightly trapezoidal-shaped entryway that is 0.75 meters wide at the base, 0.56 meters wide at the top, and 1.55 meters in height. Three connected benches 0.6 meters in height are cut away from three walls of the chamber, extending approximately 0.9 meters from the side walls and 0.85 meters from the back wall. The side and back-walls are cut directly from the bedrock and angle slightly inwards. Similarly, the ceiling has been carved on a slightly declining slope towards the side-walls. A narrow, rectangular shape is carved in relief from the center of the ceiling, running across the length of the chamber and measuring about 0.56 meters wide. The entryway opens to the chamber floor cut into the bedrock between the connected three benches, which measures 0.9 meters wide by 1.75 meters long. All the benches are visibly deteriorating and minimally covered in vegetation. Discoloration from water damage is also visible on the side and back walls. Facade: Tomb A187’s facade mostly consists of a short, uncovered dromos cut directly out of the bedrock, leading to the tomb entrance. At its greatest point, the dromos measures 1.41 meters long by 1 meter wide, with a maximum height of 2.35 meters where it meets the tomb entrance. The top of a stair can be seen at the entrance to the dromos and is approximately 0.43 meters long by 0.72 meters wide. Due to rubble and vegetation within the dromos, the full depth of this stair cannot be observed, along with other potential steps descending to the tomb entrance. A broken rock slab resides just outside the entrance to the tomb and measures approximately 0.82 meters high by 1 meter wide by 0.4 meters thick. To the right of the dromos, there appear to be three step-like cuts into the rock, but these are not complete due to the destruction of the bedrock. To the left of the tomb is a near-vertical wall of bedrock. Interpretation: Due to the length and width of the benches on the side-walls, it is likely that they served as funerary beds for two individuals. Another individual could fit along the bench cut from the back-wall; however, given that the nearby tomb A183 shows indications for only two funerary beds and shares great similarities with tomb A187, it is possible that this tomb likewise was built to entomb two individuals. Thus, the estimated number of inhumed individuals begins at two. The rectangular shape in the center of the chamber ceiling was carved to resemble the central beam of a gabled roof, called a ridgepole, maintaining a connection between the living and the dead by emulating domestic architecture. Given this house-like feature and the simplicity of the single chamber, tomb A187 can tentatively be dated from the end of the 6th century to the middle 4th century BCE. Moreover, the presence of three step-like cuts into the bedrock of the chamber’s facade suggests that tomb A187 could have been erected at a later date than another tomb or grave that is located above A187, making it no longer accessible. This information, however, is not available online and would likely need to be confirmed within the field. Due to the deterioration of the soft tufo from water and air exposure, minimal decoration, if any, is observed within the tomb. Construction of the overall chamber is of fair quality, as feature proportions remain approximately equal, whilst stylization is of little interest. References: Nelson, Rachael. 2021. “Funerary Phenomena: Investigating the Diversity of Etruscan Burial Practices. The Macksey Journal 2 (78): 1-14. Steingräber, Stephan. 2016. "Chapter 9 Architecture of the Tombs". In Caere, edited by Nancy Thompson de Grummond and Lisa Pieraccini, 97-112. New York: University of Texas Press. https://doi.org/10.7560/308431-017. Tobin, F. 2015. The Chamber Tombs of San Giovenale and the Funerary Landscapes of South Etruria. Uppsala University.
183
General Structure: Tomb A183 is a rectangular, rock cut chamber that measures 2.78 meters wide by 2.01 meters long, with a maximum floor to ceiling height of 1.64 meters. The chamber has a single, slightly trapezoidal shaped entryway that is 0.73 meters wide at the base, 0.64 meters wide at the top, and 1.56 meters in height. Two benches are cut away from the side walls of the chamber, both approximately 0.65 meters in height and extending 0.84 meters from the walls. Two perpendicular lines are etched into the tops of these benches, creating a rectangular shape. A semi-circle is etched above the shorter of the two lines on both benches. A third bench on the back chamber wall connects the two side benches, measuring 0.55 meters high and extending 0.59 meters from the back chamber wall. The side and back walls are cut directly from the bedrock and angle slightly inwards. The ceiling has similarly been carved on a slightly declining slope towards the chamber’s side walls. A narrow, rectangular shape about the width of the chamber opening is carved in relief from the center of the ceiling, running from the beginning of the chamber entrance to the back wall. The entryway opens to the chamber floor cut into the bedrock between the three platforms, which measures 1.1 meters wide by 1.42 meters long. Facade: Tomb A183’s facade mostly consists of a short, uncovered dromos cut directly out of the bedrock, leading to the tomb entrance. At its greatest point, the dromos measures 1.77 meters long by 0.98 meters wide, with a maximum height of 2.4 meters where it meets the tomb entrance. Two stairs can be seen at the entrance of the walkway and are approximately 0.25 meters long by 0.9 meters wide. Due to rubble and vegetation within the dromos, the full depth of the second stair down cannot be observed, along with other potential steps descending to the tomb entrance. A broken rock slab resides just outside the entrance to the tomb and measures approximately 0.5 meters high by 0.25 meters thick. The width of the slab cannot be determined due to the presence of heavy vegetation. The bedrock walls on either side of the dromos are nearly vertical, but are haphazardly cut and slightly angular. Interpretation: Due to the length and width of the benches on the side walls, it is likely that they served as funerary beds for two individuals. Moreover, the etchings carved into the top of the side benches reflect the rectangular shape of a bed and rounded shape of a headrest. From this, we can infer that the buried individuals were likely oriented with their heads resting within the semi-circular etchings and their feet facing the entrywall. Ultimately, the presence of two funerary beds is the reasoning behind a minimum estimation of two inhumed individuals within this chamber. The slightly lower bench connecting the two funerary beds could have been used as placement for votive offerings, grave goods, or cinerary urns. The rectangular shape in the center of the chamber ceiling was carved to resemble the central beam of a gabled roof, called the ridgepole, maintaining a connection between the living and the dead by emulating domestic architecture. Given this house-like feature and the simplicity of the single chamber, tomb A183 can tentatively be dated from the end of the 6th century to the middle 4th century BCE. Construction of the overall chamber is of good quality, as feature proportions remain approximately equal, whilst stylization is of some interest within the chamber and has remained fairly intact. Overall, tomb A183–though in better condition–closely resembles the neighbouring tomb of A187, meaning both were likely erected within the same range of time. References: Nelson, Rachael. 2021. “Funerary Phenomena: Investigating the Diversity of Etruscan Burial Practices. The Macksey Journal 2 (78): 1-14. Steingräber, Stephan. 2016. "Chapter 9 Architecture of the Tombs". In Caere, edited by Nancy Thompson de Grummond and Lisa Pieraccini, 97-112. New York: University of Texas Press. https://doi.org/10.7560/308431-017. Tobin, F. 2015. The Chamber Tombs of San Giovenale and the Funerary Landscapes of South Etruria. Uppsala University.
151
General Structure: Tomb A151 is a two chamber tomb cut into tufo bedrock, with multiple features indicative of a Chamber House Tomb Type. Its facade faces southeast onto the Via Sepolcrale Principale. The larger, central chamber can be entered through a slightly trapezoidal-shaped entryway at the end of a short, partially covered dromos. This entryway measures approximately 0.79 meters at the base, 0.61 meters at the top, and 1.53 meters in height. A semi-circular carving is etched into the tufo above the entryway on the exterior entrance wall. The second and smaller chamber can be entered through another slightly trapezoidal-shaped entryway on the left side wall of the dromos when facing the facade. This entryway measures approximately 0.69 meters at the base, 0.63 meters at the top, and 1.59 meters in height. Chamber 1: The larger, central chamber measures 2.28 meters long by 3.01 meters wide, with a maximum floor to ceiling height of 1.88 meters. Two benches are cut from the side-walls of the chamber, both approximately 0.73 meters in height and extending 1 meter from the walls. A rectangle with a semi-circle on top is etched onto the top of both benches. The bench on the left side-wall has other stylistic features: namely, triangular gables cut from the bedrock at each short side of the bench. The bench on the right side-wall does not have this feature and is visibly deteriorating on the top and side. A third bench on the back chamber wall connects the two side-wall benches, measuring 0.59 meters high and extending 0.61 meters from the back-wall. A large lump of tufo, likely rubble from erosion, is present on the top of this small bench. The ceiling is carved on a slightly declining slope towards the back and entrance-walls. The transition between the ceiling and walls of the chamber appear to have been defined by the cutting of small channels referred to as definition cuttings. A narrow, rectangular shape, carved in relief from the ceiling and measuring about 0.45 meters wide, runs through the center of the chamber from one side-wall to the other. The entryway opens to the chamber floor cut into the bedrock between the three benches, which measures 1.59 meters long by 1.07 meters wide. Chamber 2: The smaller chamber to the left of the dromos measures 2.28 meters long by 2.30 meters wide, with a maximum floor to ceiling height of 1.83 meters. Two benches are cut from the side-walls of the chamber, both approximately 0.70 meters in height and extending less than 1 meter from the walls. A rectangle with a semi-circle on top is etched onto the top of both benches. The bench on the right side-wall has triangular gables cut from the bedrock at each short side of the bench. The bench on the left side-wall does not have this feature and is visibly deteriorating on the top due to exposure from a collapsed side-wall. A third bench on the back chamber wall connects the two side-wall benches, measuring 0.64 meters high and extending 0.70 meters from the back-wall. The ceiling is carved on a slightly declining slope towards the two side-walls. The transition between the ceiling and walls of the chamber appear to have been defined by the cutting of small channels. A narrow, rectangular shape, carved in relief from the ceiling, runs through the center of the chamber from the entrance-wall to the back-wall. The entryway opens to the chamber floor cut into the bedrock between the three benches, which measures 1.68 meters long by 0.78 meters wide. Facade: Tomb A151’s facade mostly consists of a short, partially covered dromos cut from the bedrock that leads to the entrance of Chamber 1. At its greatest point, the dromos measures approximately 3.16 meters long in total by 1.43 meters wide. The length of the dromos consists of 0.63 meters of levelled tufo present at the start of the dromos when facing the facade, as well as a 0.21 meters step down to another 2.53 meters of levelled tufo–which is at a relatively even level to the floor of the chambers. Given that the dromos is partially covered (approximately 0.90 meters in length) and there is evidence of breakage to the tufo, it is likely that 2.13 meters of the dromos was covered during its creation but has since partially collapsed due to some of the tufo covering being too thin to withstand time and the elements. The presence of a covering makes the maximum height of the dromos 1.91 meters. The bedrock facade to the right of the dromos has some evidence that a pickaxe was used to make the facade more vertical. Similarly, a small area above the dromos (where the covering would have been) shows evidence that the bedrock was somewhat levelled and cut vertically. Other parts of the bedrock facade appear to be natural with no evidence of man-made reworking. Lastly, a large portion of the facade to the left of the dromos has collapsed, which also makes up the left side-wall of Chamber 2, allowing for a large opening to the chamber from outside the tomb. Interpretation: Due to the length and width of the benches on the side-walls of Chambers 1 and 2, it is likely they served as funerary beds for at least four individuals. Moreover, the etchings carved into the top of these benches reflect the rectangular shape of a bed and rounded shape of a headrest. From this, we can infer that the buried individuals were likely oriented with their heads resting within the semi-circular etchings and their feet facing the entrywalls of both tombs. The slightly lower bench connecting the two funerary beds in each chamber could have been used as placement for votive offerings, grave goods, or cinerary urns. Ultimately, the presence of two funerary beds in each tomb is the reasoning behind a minimum estimation of four inhumed individuals within Tomb A151. The triangular gables on two of the funerary beds are likely an adaptation of gabled sarcophagi. Thus, the combined cutting of the bedrock to imitate sarcophagi and beds could date this tomb from the late 7th century BCE to the early 5th century BCE. The start of this date range is further supported by the rectangular carving in the center of the chambers’ ceilings resembling the central beam of a gabled roof, called a ridgepole. As an added note, the difference in direction of the ridgepole between each chamber is simply a result of wanting it to run along the longest side of the chamber. Altogether, these features maintain a connection between the living and the dead by emulating domestic architecture. The definition cuttings in both chambers, which were used to emphasise the transition between the wall and ceiling, allows us to narrow the end of the date range to the 6th century BCE as this stylisation appears to go out of fashion then. However, the semi-circular carving above Chamber 1’s entryway on the exterior entrance wall, what is referred to as a lunette, is a particular stylistic feature with a rough chronological range at Cerveteri of 630 BCE to 525 BCE. Multiple scholars have supported this date range and suggest that the lunette could have been a reference to earlier arched entryways. Nevertheless, this lunette significantly narrows the overall dating of this tomb to approximately 630 BCE to 525 BCE. Despite Chamber 2 not having a lunette above its entrance, its size and placement compared to Chamber 1 suggests that it was likely built later, though possibly at the same time, than Chamber 1. Multiple chambers for one tomb, albeit disconnected, typically suggests that several individuals belonging to the same family unit were likely inhumed here. As such, this supports that Chamber 2 could have been erected at the same time or after Chamber 1. Construction of the overall tomb is of considerable quality, as feature proportions remain approximately equal, whilst stylization of the funerary beds and architectural features within the chambers have remained intact and are of notable interest. However, two funerary beds do exhibit moderate deterioration due to elemental exposure, especially as a result of some water damage and the collapse of the left facade wall into Chamber 2. The dromos also appears to have partially collapsed, though rubble has been cleared away. References: Moretti, A.M.S. (2001) Veio, Cerveteri, Vulci: Città d’etruria a Confronto. Roma: L’Erma di Bretschneider. Prayon, F. (1975) Frühetruskische Grab- und Hausarchitektur. Heidelberg: F. H. Kerle. Tobin, F. (2015) The Chamber Tombs of San Giovenale and the Funerary Landscapes of South Etruria. Uppsala: Uppsala University.